Rita Nagy
THEOLOGY AND ANTI-SEMITISM
The effect of “ammillennism” on Parliamentary addresses by
Hungarian Church officials (1842-1941)
pp. 58-61.
The expansion of nazi ideology
Many
of the chief proponents of racial anti-Semitism had religiocritical philosophies.
They saw religion as a movement of the poor and the weak. Their hostility
towards religion was primarily directed towards the Church institutions,
against the Catholic and Protestant parties.[1]
The
race theory was based on the 19th Century's “scientific racism”, which claimed that
certain races had inferior characteristics, whereas others were superior (Gobineau).[2] In this framework the Germany aryan
race was the chosen people, the Jews were inferior, a race to be destroyed. The
dominant aryan race has a right to rule, and to quash the global Jewish
conspiracy.[3] Hitler assumed absolute antagonism
between the aryans and the Semites. He always avoided a direct criticism of
Christianity in order to attract as wide a mass as possible. The crowd was most
pleased by vociferous anti-Semitism, and Hitler exploited this: whatever his
opponent represented, he decried it as the invention of the Jews, and declared
the Jews guilty of everything. Beside the nazi political and economic
arguments, the Jews were deemed demonic, alien creatures who threaten the aryan
race with racial degeneracy. The race theory became an all-defining view of the
world (Weltanschauung). Anti-Semitic tenets became irrefutable fact. Radical
anti-Semitism denied Jews' right to existence, and after gaining control of
governmental policies, began to take active steps in this spirit.[4]
Hilberg
compared anti-Semitic laws enacted during the history of Christianity to the
laws of the nazi era, not with the view of confusing racial and religious
legislation, but to examine similar methods of solving the Jewish problem. He
defined the essence of anti-Semitic measures as follows:
–
according
to the Christians' anti-Semitic measures: you have no right to live amongst us
as Jews;
–
according
to the secular power's anti-Semitic measures: you have no right to live amongst
us;
–
according
to the nazis' anti-Semitic measures: you have no right to live.
The laws of
Christian states offered a precedent for the nazi bureaucracy's anti-Semitic
measures, little change was needed.[5]
|
Religious laws |
Nazi laws |
|
Ban on intermarriage of Christians
and Jews, Synod of Elvira, 306 |
Act to protect German blood and
honour, 1935 |
|
Ban on concurrent taking of food by
Christians and Jews, Synod of Elvira, 306 |
Ban of Jews from Buffet Cars, 1939 |
|
Jews are forbidden to bear public
office, Synod of Clermont, 535 |
Act creating professional civilian
service, 1939 |
|
Jews are forbidden to keep Christian
servants or slaves, Synod of Orleans, 538 |
Act to protect Germany blood and
honour, 1935 |
|
Jews are banned from appearing in the
street in the week of the Passion, Synod of Orleans, 538 |
Decree banning Jews from the streets
on certain days (nazi holidays), 1938 |
|
Burning of Talmud and other books,
Synod of Toledo |
Book burnings in nazi Germany |
|
Christians are banned from supporting
Jewish doctors, Synod of Trulan |
Decree of 25th July, 1938. |
|
Christians are banned from dwelling
in Jewish houses, Synod of Narbonne, 1050 |
Göring's decree to collect Jews in
separate housing, 1938 |
|
Jews are ordered to pay Church taxes,
Synod of Gerona, 1078 |
“Sozialausgleichsabgabe” Jews are
ordered to pay a special tax to subsidise the nazi party, 1940 |
|
Jews were banned from bearing witness
against Christians, or from suing Christians, 3rd Synod of
Lateran, 1179 |
A proposal by the Chancery that Jews
be banned from initiating civilian lawsuits, 1942 |
|
Marking Jews with a sign, 4th
Synod of Lateráni, 1215 |
Decree of 1st September
1941. |
|
Ban on construction of new
synagogues, Synod of Oxford, 1222 |
Destruction of all synagogues in the
Reich, 1938, decree by Göring |
|
Christians are banned from Jewish
ceremonies, Synod of Vienna, 1267 |
Ban on maintaining friendship with
Jews, Gestapo-order, 1941 |
|
Jews are banned from debating the
Catholic fate with Christians, Synod of Vienna, 1267 |
|
|
Compulsory ghettos, Synod of Breslau,
1267 |
Heydrich decree, 1939 |
|
Christians are banned from leasing or
selling properties to Jews, Synod of Ofen, 1279 |
Properties held by Jews are forcibly
sold, 1938 |
|
Conversion of Christian to Judaism,
or reconversion of baptised Jew is heresy, Synod of Mainz, 1310 |
Conversion of Christian to Judaism
results in converted person being regarded as a Jew, 1942 |
|
Ban on Jews from bearing witness for
contracts, especially marriages, Synod of Basel, 1434 |
Ban on Jews from real estate
services, brokerages, and matchmaking between non-Jews, 1938 |
|
Jews are banned from achieving
academic honours, Synod of Basel, 1434 |
Act to counterbalance
overrepresentation of Jews in universities, 1933 |
Christianity's
anti-Semitic actions, including Martin Luther's outcries, inocculated such
prejudices against the Jews into Protestant culture that little change was
required for them to fit into nazi ideology. Luther said Jews are like the
plague, and were a threat to the country. Nazis referred to Jews in their
speeches like carriers of infectious bacteria and worms. Hitler spoke of Jews
in terms that were familiar to Germans. The fight against Jews was equivalent
to the fight against the forces of Satan, because they had gained control over
the German people. Nazis regarded Jews as an inferior race, they called them
worms, parasites who were infecting the German people with a deadly disease.
Jews were seen as the enemy, criminals and scavengers. They held that their
racial characteristics could not be changed, evil was in their blood.[6]
pp. 72-107.
I. The threat and conspiracy of Jews against the Christian
nation
This contains those topics which
pointed to the threat of the presence of Jews as the “CAUSE” in the Christian nation. The cause of
the threat is that their moral degeneracy will degenerate Christians, whilst
their aim is to destroy Christianity and the Christian nation. This is termed by Karády as the
ancient topos of the universal Jewish threat, which is based on real
demonology.[7]
The destruction and threat,
according to their intentions, is directed at Christian morals, culture,
politics and economy, which were sorted into separate subcategories (1. threat
to Christian morals and culture and 2. conspiracy against Christian politics and
economy).
“Granting rights of citizens would no doubt cause our
country and our Christian compatriots great harm.” (Bishop György Haulik,
1840)
“Never has this country had dearer or holier treasure,
which was so defiled or so deeply undermined, made so brittle, than the
Christian and national ideal.” (Chaplain János Nagy,
1920)
“...a ready propagator of all revolutionary and
anti-national movements.” (Minister of Education and Religion, theologist István
Haller, 16th February, 1920.)
“We must keep a watchful eyes on all the movements, which
crop up here and there with the aim of breaking the Hungarian Christian
national way, and could perhaps bring about another national catastrophe.” (Roman Catholic Bishop Ottokár Prohászka, 1920)
“Universal history shows that the religion moral
principles of the Jewry, and all its life and world view, its racial
peculiarities and characteristics are in stark contrast with the evolution of
the Christian peoples and nations of the world.” (Reformist Pastor
Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
“The real Christian nation-state is the greatest obstacle
before the Jewry's racial and national existence. This is reflected in the
struggle the Jewry is conducting against the existence of Christian
nation-states, most noticeably in the period of a crisis of Christian
nation-states.” (Reformist
Pastor Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
“Beside all its cultural achievements and great feats, how
much harm has Jewry done to the fundamentals of a thousand-year old Hungary,
and how much harm has it done to the Christian national character of Hungary.
Christian Hungary has suffered a spiritual deterioration.” (Gyula Zákány, army
chaplain, religious teacher, 1920)
“Let us convince Jewry, as a whole, to combat with us
against the Jewry, Jewish destiny, against humanity's Jewish complex so that
this ancient fate, ancient issue and ancient curse is at last solved and
lifted.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1938)
1. A threat to Christian morals and culture
According to the definition of the
category the aim of the Jews is to deny, destroy and poison the Christian
culture, morals and religion.
“Marriage shall be under the protection of religion, the
state cannot approve a law that entails the defiling of our religious laws.”[8] (István Rossival, Vicar, 1883)
“With the proposed law Hungary is rushing headlong towards
its own destruction. Marriage is a religious institutions.” (Vicar István Lesskó, 1883)
“...the wrath of this struggle is directed against
Christianity, especially the Catholic world, and its purpose is to shake
civilisation from its thousand-year old foundations, and place it to a new
plane beyond religion.”
(János
Simor, hercegprímás, 10th December, 1883.)
“The approval of this law will result in the paganisation
of the Christian people.”
(Cardinal
Lajos Hajnold, Archbishop of Kalocsa, 1883.)
“With the introduction of the civil marriage the state
grabs all power. This is not the law with which to ensure the equality of the
Israelites. Civil marriage is especially harmful for Catholic principles.” (Bishop of Nagyvárad Lőrinc Schlausch, 3rd
December, 1883.)
“To attack these principles, feelings, customs, morals of
the nation is a political error, it is a denial of the nation's individuality.
The state cannot claim unlimited power. The approval breaks and is in conflict
with the Hungarian nation's religious convictions, customs, and all traditions
of its past. The Bill wounds religious feelings.” (Archbishop of Eger, József Samassa, 1883.)
“And thus there is no reason to discard the ancient law
(intermarriage of Jews and Christians has been forbidden since the reign of St
Stephen) which was enacted by our forefathers in defence of public morals. If a
Christian can have a Jewish child, it is a regression in terms of both
Christianity and nation.”
(Abbot of
Pusztaszer Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“Since the reinstatement of our Constitution I have known
no Bill that was in such conflict or contrast with the country's peoples'
feelings, than the one currently being debated.” (István Rossival, Vicar, 1883.)
“With the Bill Hungary has joined the rank of countries
rushing headlong towards moral disaster. The Bill wounds the citizens'
religious convictions and feelings.”
(Vicar
István Lesskó, 1883.)
“The contract of marriage has been a religious matter in
the Modern Age and was the same in Antiquity, and only the most modern fake
liberalism has debased it to gescheft.” (Vicar
István Lesskó, 1883)
“...they even took control of the press.” (Abbot of Pusztaszer Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“In their press they endeavour to debase Christian morals.
They looked to build in secret here, in
the womb of the Carpathians. The Jewish press trampled in disgustingly muddy
boots on everything that we Christian Hungarians hold secret and respect.” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“Their purpose is to take power by spiritual and
intellectual well-poisoning by the Jewish press.” (Chaplain János Huber,
1920)
“They can talk to me under the cloak of all the world's
liberalism, I, who know Christian religious principles and ideals, and I who
see pitted against them the destruction of Christian morals which was, beyond
doubt, spurred to 90 per cent by non-Christian elements...” (Reformist Pastor Emil Kovács, 1920)
“It is not Jewry that assimilated to the Hungarian spirit,
but the Hungarian spirit assimilated to Jewry.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1939)
2. Conspiracy
against Christian politics and economy:
The main element of the category is
the characterisation of Jews' anti-Christian conspiracies. The means of
conspiracy: liberalism, fake liberalism, Bolshevism, capitalism, exploitation,
the activities of masonic lodges[9], its purpose is to ensure Jewish
control over Christian politics and economy and a murderous campaign against
the Christian national principles.
“Even now, with inequality before the law they can acquire
wealth, if Jews are given equal civil rights, it will hardly be possible to
avoid the daily increment of their wealth, while Christians will sink deeper.” (Bishop György
Haulik, 1840.)
“Those, who casting their eyes upon the spreading of
cosmopolitan principles in our country see grave danger, express their deepest
concerns.”
(Bishop Lőrinc Schlausch, 1883.)
“...they have become lords of commerce and money,” (Abbot Benedek
Göndöcs, 1883.)
“Capitalism and its political exponent, liberalism have
from the onset been in stark contrast with Christianity. Christianity, which
has thundered its moral laws towards it, has been uncomfortable to it. (...) Anti-Semitism has its basis in law.
They are responsible for the war, the dictatorship of the proletariat equals
Jewish power and persecution of Christians. Christian politics are in
opposition with Jewish politics. Jewish intellectuals plot the ruin of the
country, they are the misleaders of the people.” (Chaplain János Huber,
1920)
“Let us no stroke Mammon with a velvet hand, but we must
destroy it, we must obliterate the power of plutocracy. Who endeavoured to
paralise all influence of Christianity on public life, the fake liberal masonic
lodges. I believe the Jewish problem is the most urgent social, political and
economic problem.” (Chaplain
Miklós Grieger, 1920)
“Communism is condensed capitalism, the Jewish race is in
position in both extremes and both are in the service of capitalism. (...)
Jewry's fate is the fight for power, then the pogrom.” (Chaplain János Nagy,
1920)
“The Jewish problem began when the first Jew set foot on
Hungarian soil. Who would have thought then that these (...) are harbingers of
a murderous campaign against the Christian Hungarian nation. (...) The greatest
threat to Christian Hungary is the Jewry. The destruction of our thousand-year
old Hungarian home has been brought about by the Jewry, whom we embraced in the
spirit of liberalism. Their endeavour is to break the national way, the
Christian course. (...) Jews have been working on consolidating their power.
They destroyed the livelihood of Christian merchants.” (Roman Catholic
teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“Liberalism, conceived ideally, is truly called
Christianity. We fight against that liberalism that has existed in Hungary for
a few decades. This liberalism was a hundred-coloured blanket, which covered
Jacob's hand with which he was rummaging in our pockets. Liberalism here was
that you could set up Galilei clubs, but Mary congregations were banned from
schools. This liberalism is the gravedigger of Christianity and of Hungarians.”
(Minister
of Religion and Education, theologist István Haller, 21st September,
1920.)
“We shall topple the liberal idol, we have had enough of
liberal fetishism.” (law
presenter, Roman Catholic School Headmaster Ferenc Ussety, 1920)
“Jewish terror begins to emerge.” (Chaplain János Huber,
1920-22 National assembly, session 106.)
“...again Galilei clubs are formed at the universities.
This country will not be saved by the Joint Foreign Jewish Committee or the
Alliance Israelite, not the League of Nations, but the youth of this country.” (Cistercitan Rudolf
Mátrai, 1928)
“...liberalism hoped to assimilate ghetto-Jewry without
limit, a new home occupation has begun. A triumphant race flooded in from
Galicia, and occupied the areas of public life. Jewry swooped down on economics
with unbridled gluttony. (...) The Hungarian economy is woven through with
Jewish capital and representatives of the Jewry.” (Chaplain Lajos
Makray, 1939)
“Where they settle they want to rule. Since Jews have
existed, there has been a Jewish problem: the Pharaoh in Egypt brought the
first Jewish law on the killing of male children. (...) In the Roman Empire Constantine the Great excluded them
from public office. Mohammed banned Jews from ancient areas in his realm, the
Jewish mark was introduced in Spain in 1412. Since the creation of Hungary
there has been a Jewish problem. If we consider the law of emancipation (Act of
1895), the expansion of Jewry is noticeable. Jewry has turned its back on us.” (Vicar Dénes Güttler,
1939)
“Diaspora often seemed like one enormouus shop. There is
cause for concern, is it perhaps the Hungarian middle class that is
assimilating, and is this not contrary to the goals of this nation.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1938)
“The flood and expansion of Jewry has happened purely in
the area of intellectual careers, and did not filter through the common
people.” (Reformist
Bishop László Ravasz, 1938)
“The proposal (1941.
XV. tc.) sets three obstacles to
marriage: the infectious gümokór, infectious venereal disease and Jewish
extraction. The Bill before us, whilst it battles the Jews, loyally sticks to
the Jewish spirit, because at least indirectly it seeks to support the concept
of civil marriage, the very civil marriage that was most campaigned for by the
liberal and masonic Jews in the face of Catholic opposition.” (Jusztinián Serédi,
hercegprímás, 1941)
II. Jewish alienness and separateness
According to this category Jewry is
a foreign body within the Christian Hungarian nation, separate in terms of
religion, nation, race, so ensconced (set in its religious ways), that they
cannot adopt the vibrations of the Christian people's spirit, Jews are immigrants.[10]
“The contrast between Christians and Israelites in their
view of the world, their thoughts, customs, remembrance of the past, hopes of
the future is much deeper than could be erased with this Bill.” (Bishop Lőrinc
Schlausch, 1883)
“... besides the tenacious insistence of Israelites on
their religion, their racial isolation, they stand immutable as they are, and
the thus dispersing and no-longer Christian society will either become enslaved
to it, or the persecutor of the other.” (János Simor, hercegprímás, 10th
December, 1883.)
“They only seek to support their fellows in faith, the
others they oppress.” (Abbot Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“...special racial characteristic...” (Chaplain István
Vajay, 1894)
“The tenacious perseverance of the Jewish race lies behind
capitalism,” (Chaplain
János Huber, 1920)
“... they live in great racial and religious isolation
from Christian Hungarians,” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“Jewry is a race and nation, and so feels a large part of
Jewry as well, and if they are allowed to be of the opinion about themselves
that they are a race and a nation, why should we, Christians not be allowed to
say: Jewish people, Jewish nation. This is the correct term. I believe that
they do not yearn for the meagre land of Galillee, they do not yearn for their
own nation, a Jewish state.” (Minister of Education and Religion,
theologist István Haller, 21st September, 1920.)
“Yes there is a Jewish problem. The problem is triggered
by the antithesis between the Jewish and Christian spirits, in its isolation,
Jewry is a foreign body within the Christian society.” (Chaplain Lajos
Makray, 1939)
“The Jewish problem is a global problem. Jewishness is a
separate faith and a separate race. Jews are a race, race theory proves it.
Jews are a strong race, an ancient race, (...) Jewry is a rootless body in the
soil of the thousand-year old Hungarian nation.” (Dénes Güttler, Vicar,
1939)
“Jewishness is not a religion. Jewry is indeed a race,
with an extraordinarily strong race-ness, hard to dissolve, it mingles with
different races in such a way that it retains its own racial characteristics
with especial consistency.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1938)
“It is an immutable fact that Jewry is different compared
to Hungarians. Jews are different in terms of race, religion, fate, historical
position and the result of all this is different: the Jewish spirit.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1939)
III. Jews do not assimilate, are not equal:
According to topics in this category
Jews cannot merge into the Christian nation because of their characteristics
and foreignness, and cannot be equals of Christian citizens.[11] In order to achieve equality they
would have to change their characters and religion. Unassimilated Jews, that is
non-Christian Jews cannot be leaders of the Christian Hungarian nation.
“Granting them citizens' rights is unacceptable. This
class of people in our country is not, on the whole, on the level where
suddenly they could receive the right to be treated equally, in all citizen's
rights, with Christians,” (Bishop László Barkóczy, 1840)
“...having, as they did, come hither from other countries,
they hope to render this the country of Jews.” (Bishop György Haulik,
1840)
“.... our Israelites are not so prepared as to be capable
of simply handling and not, to our detriment, abusing the benefits and rights
prepared by the Honourable Assemblymen for them.” (Bishop János
Scitovszky, 1840)
“As long as the Jewish people retain their current
customs, character, nature, all their false religious and superstitious
principles, I do not support their benefiting in these matters.” (Antal Szathmáry,
legate of the Kalocsa fokáptalan, 1840)
“According to the justification of the law, the Israelite
people will merge into the Christian society, but this merger will not happen,
because society is Christian and they are the Jewry.” (hercegrpímás János
Simor, 10th December, 1883.)
“The Jews have not become patriots since they were granted
equal rights,” (Abbot
Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“Jewry has been unable to plant roots into the Hungarian
national traditions.” (Minister for Education and Religion, theologist István
Haller, 16th February, 1920.)
“...we cannot even dream of their assimilation.” (Roman Catholic
teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“... assimilation is a tough question, (unless they
convert for selfish reasons).” (Dénes Güttler, Vicar, Chaplain, 1939)
“Can a layer of the people be in charge of Hungary's
economic and spiritual leadership, of which section of society it has for one
reason or another been asked whether they have assimilated entirely, and
whether they have become so Hungarian, so entirely Christian that they should
have the right to belong to the select leadership of the nation in the economic
and spiritual arena. (...) But it is
beyond doubt that assimilation is not finished, it has not yet reached its
goal. The assimilation process did not happen the way it should have, it was
gluttonous and fast. Assimilation is a spiritual transformation. It is a
transformation and a replacement of ancient patterns within the essence of man,
a reinocculation of the roots. This cannot be hurried along, or achieved from
one day to the next. Thus it happened, therefore, that the signs of
assimilation are seen here and there, in name, manners and religion. The people
have changed their outward colours from one day to the next, but they did not
change inside. Much more have entered than could be processed by the nation's
spirit. Assimilation is quality.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1939)
IV. The characteristics of Jews
The representatives provided
descriptions of external and internal characteristics.
1. External characteristics
The external, physical
manifestation of otherness, the basis of the visibility of an alien group.
“... long-bearded, caftan-wearing apparitions...” (Roman Catholic
teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“...these side-burn wearers,” (Chief caretaker of Reformist Church district
Jenő Balogh, 1939)
2. Internal characteristics
According to the characterisations
provided by the representatives, Jews, by their nature, react differently than
Christians. Their religious customs and moral characteristics are far from the
cleanliness of Christians (allegories describing religious and moral
characteristics). Their demonic nature is manifested in their spiritual
characteristics: in their evilness they are capable of anything against
Christians (allegories collecting animal and illness metaphors).
A) Religious characteristics
In terms of value, their religion is
not on equal footing with Christianity: Jews are superstitious, carnal,
worshippers of Mammon and money. Their negative characteristics were chronicled
in the Old Testament, constantly causing trouble to the nations and God
himself. They have become distant from God and express their separateness with
their religion.
“... false religious and superstitious principles” (Antal Szathmáry,
legate of the Kalocsa főkáptalan, 1840)
“Israelites too want to marry according to their beliefs.”
(János
Simor, hercegprímás, 3rd December, 1883.)
“Have Jews changed in religion (...)? No. (...) The
religion and morals of the Jews are completely different compared to the
religion and morals of Christians. There is such opposition between the two
religions that in terms of morals it is impossible to unite them, and create a
perfect community of conviviance. (...) wake up from your blindness...” (Abbot Benedek
Göndöcs, 1883)
“Capitalism is a struggle for Mammon, a mad dance around
the golden calf. (...) The real Mammon worshippers are they, not for nothing,
this race invented the golden calf.” (Chaplain János Huber, 1920)
“Dances around idols, cabbalistic numbers, the entire
political life was spent in dances between 48 and 67.” (Chaplain János Nagy,
1920)
“The breath of the golden calf of Sinai made Jews money
worshippers for all eternity.” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“The constant vibration of the Jewish spirit, which
attempted to attract the Hungarian people towards alien laws and the adulation
of alien Gods.” (Reformist
preacher Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
“... it was a hundred-coloured blanket, which covered
Jacob's hand, rummaging in our pockets.” (Minister for Education and Religion,
theologist István Haller, 21st September 1920.)
“But not only the nation, but God himself, Jehova has had
trouble with the Jewish people. He was forced to hand down the Ten Commandments
to Moses to regulate the Jewish people.” (Dénes Güttler, Vicar, Chaplain, 1939)
“There was a thousand years ago a group of people, with an
extraordinarily strong racial consciousness, a people of fierce national
feeling, which incorporated as its blood, took as its existential conviction
this sense of being chosen.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1938)
“Jewry has distanced itself from the ideal of sanctity,
the people of sanctity have abandoned the principle of sanctity. They stand
before the altar, before God's table helpless, alien, almost redundant. They
were unspeakably orphaned and abandoned. This was coupled with their way of
life, the finances, which has been Jewry's vocation for two thousand years.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1939)
B) Moral characteristics
Their moral characteristics
determine their religious characteristics as well. Morally they are unreliable,
avaricious, under the influence of money, their moral behaviour is in contrast
with Christian morality, and could therefore be a negative influence. Good Jews
are the Jews converted to Christianity, bad Jews are unassimilated Jews, the
usurers.
“Christians are not easily swayed by the morals of
financial gluttony, which we have seen that Jews are.” (Bishop György Haulik,
1840)
“...especially from the point of view of morals, have they
become better? No. (...) We have seen that the millions of people in Hungary,
who feel religious passion, are terrified when they hear that they are forced
to unite and marry with those whose religion and morals are not compatible with
the clean morals of Christians. (...) the less virtuous and less cultured
Jewish people (...) Will Christianity, the country and the Hungarian nation win
by its offspring marrying Jews and thereby becoming less virtuous and less
cultured? (...) But I, when I speak against Jewish morals, am not an
anti-Semite.” (Abbot
Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“...a lack of remorse, which easily surpasses every law of
morals..” (Chaplain János Huber, 1920)
“The Jewish character knows no state, and knows no law.” (Chaplain János Nagy,
1920)
“This great level of money worship, this undescribable
avarice to which every more noble endeavour, every consideration, homeland and
nation have been submitted.” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“How little remorse and self-knowledge Jewry has displayed
in this. They seek formal truth in it, it has eaten itself into their souls and
bloodcells, the concept that they suffer innocently. It is the stupidity, envy
and evil of man that causes their suffering, they are innocent, pure and
sinless. In the order of a state a minority cannot be in such a position that
they exercise the rights and powers of the majority. It would require a great
resignation and shyness.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1938)
“There are honourable Jews too, but there is a bunch of
usurers, unassimilated Jews, who will stay here, these usurers in their hundred
thousands, these who have trickled in, and were smuggled in from Galicia, and
because of these the cultured, honourable Jews who have lived here since 1848
must be subjected to restrictions.” (Chief caretaker of the Reformist church
district Jenő Balogh, 1939)
“It is only an appearance that we are fighting against
origins and human relations. In the essence of things, we fights against our
common ancient human enemy, the sin and misery of degenerate human nature.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1939)
“This Bill (1941.
XV. tc.), which has been put before
Christian Hungary's Parliament, would perhaps most affect Christians of Jewish
origin, and aims to prevent their marriages, and to re-convert them, their
children and their descendants ad aeternam, and thereby to increase the number
of Jews, and not, as the wording of the Bill's justification says: “to bring
about an improvement of the quality and quantity of our country's population”.
I cannot accept the Bill.” (Jusztinián Serédi, hercegprímás, 1941)
C)
Animal and disease metaphors
This subcategory shows the Jews'
conspiracy against Christianity, with the means of comparing Jews and their
activities with nepharious animals and spreading disease.[12]
“We have warmed many a snake on the bosom of the Alma
Mater.” (Minister
of Education and Religion, theologist István Haller, 16th February
1920.)
“... the tousand-year old core of our nation is being
eroded and cast into decline by internal vermin. This vast core cannot fall
prey to a parasitic race, which has suckered onto, surrounded in web and chewed
itself into it to suck out the last drops of its life energy with its hundred
thousand stings, bloodlusty passion and destructive arms. (...) Because those
who know the mood of the people know very well that this is an eternal boil on
the body of the nation.” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“...destroying moth, which has fed on the basic fibre of
Hungarian national culture.” (Reformist preacher Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
V. Characteristics of the Christian nation
This category contains the topics,
which were used to characterise the Christian nation and society, and always
depicted Christianity and the Christian nation in a positive light. Loyalty to
the nation and Hungarian blood are one with Christianity, which ensure moral
superiority. The category includes three subcategories, which contain the more
specific characterisations of Christianity: 1. glorious, 2. the only path for
society, 3. domination.
“The majority of the core of the nation wish to live and
marry by their Christian laws.” (János Simor, hercegprímás, 3rd
December, 1883.)
“The Hungarian nation declared that it wants to be a
Christian Hungarian nation.” (Chaplain János Nagy, 1920)
“... we the Christian Hungary, (...) Christian Hungarian race...” (Gyula Zákány, army priest, religious teacher,
1920)
“Other conditions of acceptance: loyalty to the nation,
moral reliability. Universities should only admit boys who feel at one with
Hungary's past. If we do not act in this spirit, there will be Galilei clubs at
the universities again. This country (...) will be saved by the youth of this
country.” (Cistercitan
Rudolf Mátrai, 1928)
“I must address this issue from the point of view and
distance of the Christian faith. (The question of a Christian race)” (Chaplain Lajos
Makray, 1939)
“Those who were born of mixed marriages can follow a
single road. And this single road is that the Hungarian blood in them must be
protected, the Hungarian blood which is the world's dearest and rarest fluid,
but the only hiccough is that there is so heartrendingly little of it. A
marriage, where the moral and spiritual superiority of the Christian soul seems
ensured, cannot be declared harmful to the nation on the basis of blood alone.”
(Reformist
Bishop László Ravasz, 1941)
“...was put before Christian Hungary's Parliament,” (Jusztinián Serédi,
hercegprímás 1941)
1. Glorious
The nation has a glorious Christian
past, Christian morals and religion are the purest and above all others.
“I trust the nearly thousand-year old Christian virtue of
the Hungarian nation.” (János Simor, hercegprímás, 10th December,
1883.)
“The Christian religion is above all other religions. The
whole Christianity, which commands culture and pure virtue”, (Abbot Benedek Göndöcs,
1883)
“The Christian view of the world is the most ideal view of
the world, based on the purest foundations.” (Minister of Education and Religion,
theologist István Haller, 16th February, 1920.)
“The dying spark of life flares up within us, our brow is
surrounded by the halo of Christian and national feelings, and we set out on
laying the foundations of the new millennium with a determined enthusiasm.” (Roman Catholic
teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“In their souls, the writers of this Bill must have that
knowledge, which will cast the hopeful rainbow of our faith in the immortality
of our Hungarian race. In their souls, the writers of this Bill must have the
solid conviction that Christian morality is a condition of the nation's healthy
life. In its soul the nation must keep the fierce pride of its great
ancestors.” (Reformist
preacher Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
2. The only path for society
The one navigable path for society
is for the ideals of Christianity to retain their primary role. Christianity is
indispensable to the existence of the nation.
“And if the historical scandal were to arise that this
nation would cease to be Christian, than this society will disintegrate and
Jewry will have nothing to assimilate into.” (János Simor, hercegprímás, 10th
December, 1883.)
“The most authoritative representative of the order of
morals is the Church.” (Bishop of Nagyvárad Lőrinc Schlausch, 1883)
“To not a little degree the state depends on the peoples'
concept of religious institutions. What can save nations are the ideals in the
heart of the nation, our Christian forebears have established a part of our existence, which we cannot renounce
without selfdestruction.” (Archbishop of Eger, József Samassa, 1883)
“Baptism leaves an indelible mark on the souls of those
who receive it.” (Chaplain
István Vajay, 1894)
“The transforming and transmuting effects of Christianity,
of joining Christianity, and Christian education, Christian social environment,
Christian social influences cannot be denied. (...) how a Church-like way of
thinking, a Christian way of life shapes a Christian environment, people and
nation. (...) Do not allow the fact, value and respect of Christianity, that
which is the cornerstone of our entire national past, our Christian
civilisation, be dropped or whittled away. Christianity does have an
assimilating power.” (Csanád
County Bishop Gyula Glattfelder, 1939)
“I find the higher synthesis in theory in Christian
teachings, in the mission of the nation community.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1939)
C) Domination
The necessity of the domination of
Christianity derives from its glory and exclusivity. The reinstatement and
creation of a Christian national hegemony is the goal, Christians must be
placed in positions of leadership.
“The Church greatly and effectively supports the state in
its endeavours to achieve its noble goals, but let the state not remain
ungrateful. A believer sees both Church and secular law as originating from the
same source, and thus respects it.” (István Rossival, Vicar, 1883)
“The more a people believe, the more firmly established
the ruling powers are. I for one love a believing nation a hundred times more
than a faithless one.” (Vicar István Lesskó, 1883)
“This (viz.
Christianity) must be transposed in a practical way in schools. (...) Therefore us, who know that the
country is being guided by the intelligentsia, must be especially careful to
ensure that the vast majority of those in permanent leading positions in the
intelligentsia be those who are Hungarian in tradition, spirit and breeding,
those who the country need not fear from even in times of hardship. (Minister of Education
and Religion, theologist István Haller, 16th February 1920.)
“I brought this proposal before the National Assembly so
that we can solve this problem in the interest of our country, of our Christian
faith, in order to protect effectively the Hungary of the next thousand years.” (Roman Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“Never before has there been a better opportunity to place
Christian Hungarian youths in such well-paying positions. Never before has
there been a better opportunity to take into our hands the work, which until
now had not been in the hands of the Christian Hungarian society. (...) The
leading position of Christian Hungarian intelligentsia must be ensured for the
future.” (Reformist preacher
Balázs Szabó, 1920)
“Either we want a Christian world in this land, or not,
whoever is not with us, as Christ said, is against us. Even where Christ talks
about loving your enemy, he does not add that you should love him like
yourself, moreover he does not tell you to love him at the cost of the murder
of yourself and your own nation. It is not anti-Semitism that speaks from me,
we are Christian people.”
(Reformist
preacher Emil Kovács, 1920)
“Our goal is to realise and protect the Christian way of
thinking and Christian feelings in Hungary, in our schools, in economic
institutions and in our laws.”
(Minister
of Education and Religion, theologist István Haller, 21st September,
1920.)
“The proposal seeks unilaterally to reinstate the lost
Christian national hegemony. The conditions of a Christian national
intelligentsia must be established. The proposal aims to do nothing but ensure
that the lost Christian hegemony is restored as fast and as intensively as
possible. Let the predominant congregation and the predominant race be
Hungarian, let us be Christian national Hungary and let us ensure its
predominance at any cost, (...) I approve this proposal in the hope that these
Christian national, spiritual and moral values are cultivated, the Christian
national hegemony is established as soon as possible.” (Gyula Zákány, army priest, religious teacher,
1920)
“This party (the National People's Party, Nemzeti Néppárt)
opposed Jewish power decades ago and revealed the struggle for the reconquest
of the supremacy of Christian society. (...) There are races, but there is no
superiority or inferiority. I deny the mystery of blood, it is the spirit that
matters. The Hungarian national, racial spirit's fundamental element: the
blessed Hungarian soil. Christianity is the nation's life's greatest treasure,
it's history's greatest strength, our moral lives', our faith's, the Hungarian
state's and the Hungarian race's safeguard.” (Chaplain
Lajos Makray, 1939)
“It is just, it is right that in this Christian Hungary,
where the Jewry makes up 6 per cent of the population, 91 per cent of the
press, the government and all areas of society and public life be controlled by
Christian Hungarians. We want to construct in a Christian Hungarian spirit on
the area of Christian Hungary, and we want this country's future to be built on
a foundation of Christian morals. We want a Christian Hungary, which cannot be
submitted even by the gates of Hell.”
(Dénes
Güttler, Vicar, Chaplain, 1939)
“...a state is made Christian not by political movements
and modern political theories, but by filling the fundamental questions of the
state with a Christian spirit, and by switching the different relationships of
life to the train tracks of Christianity.” (Evangelical Bishop Béla Kapi, 1941)
VI. Proposals for the solution of the Jewish problem
The Parliamentary speeches were made
during the debate of different legislation on Jews, thus parts of them offer
solutions with reference to the law. Laws related to the emancipation were not
supported by Church delegate MPs: Jews must convert to Christianity
(subcategory: 1) Education -assimilation), because before this takes place they
cannot be equal members of society (subcategory: 2. They cannot receive equal
rights). The so-called Jewish laws were supporred by the Mps, apart from the
race protexction act, because of Christian Jews. The final subcategory (3.)
urges and argues for solution through legislation.
1. Training and assimilation
The assimilation of the Jewry was in
keeping with the Chrurch's theological position: Jews could only become equal
or tolerated members of society in Christian realms in the past if they
converted to Christianity. In exchange they had to renounce their religion and
every custom.
“... through proper education Jews are also capable of
taking the right direction.” (Bishop László Barkóczy, 1840)
“...through concessions, it must happen gradually in the
manner, in which their (Jews') moral and civil maturity develops, with special
attention to the day-to-day dealings of Jews with Christians.” (Bishop György Haulik,
1840)
“Concessions must be made in civil matters gradually,” (Bishop János
Scitovszky, 1840)
“I believe that they will remain who they have always
been. Let the Jews prove first that they are useful citizens, good patriots.” (Antal Szathmáry,
legate of the Kalocsa fokáptalan, 1840)
“After the Hungarian nation emancipated the Jews, I want
them to emancipate themselves spiritually, and let them become Christians, when
the hatred, which grows daily, will dissipate. If Jews then want to avoid harm,
there is only one way: arise, wake up from your blindness and emancipate
yourselves spiritually.” (Abbot Benedek Göndöcs, 1883)
“The Jewish problem has a single correct solution: full
assimilation. European human cultural development should have absorbed the
diaspora nation.” (Reformist
Bishop László Ravasz, 1938)
“Let us go even further, and the Jewish citizens who
resided here at the onset of our sacred national year, who have lived without
break in awe of this land, have breathed the air of this country, have been
under the influence of this Hungarian national society, and took that step of
decision whereby they entered Christ's Church, let us protect them as our
compatriots and brothers in faith who enjoy equal rights with us, who think and
feel like us, can live and die like us for this country.” (Csanád County Bishop
Gyula Glattfelder, 1939)
“I believe and hold that one of the solutions of the Jewish
problem is assimilation.” (Reformist Bishop László Ravasz, 1939)
2. They cannot receive equal rights, unless they
assimilate
In a Christian nation non-Christians
cannot be equal. According to some views, baptism is not sufficient to erase
Jewish nature. Non-Christian Jews were not protected by the Church delegates
because they did not assimilate, did not become members of the Church.
“... in this subject (viz. equality) religion
ought not to even be mentioned.” (Bishop János Scitovszky, 1840)
“The Catholic priests are against the Bill's (viz. Act on intermarriage of
Christians and Israelites) approval.” (István Rossival,
Vicar, 1883)
“The opposition between Christians and Israelites között
(...) is much deeper than can be dissolved through this Bill.” (Bishop of Nagyvárad
Lőrinc Schlausch, 1883)
“And thus there is no reason to reject the ancient law
(the intermarriage of Jews and Christians has been banned since St Stephen).” (Abbot Benedek
Göndöcs, 1883)
“It is an unsubstantiated argument, differentiating
between Christians and Israelites is ideal , and the notion of a theoretical
citizen cannot be forced into real life as a concrete entity, and by law be given rights, which harm the
subject of the other concept, Christian or Israelite.” (István Lesskó,
Chaplain, 1883)
“Baptism (conversion), the holy water cannot erase the
racial characteristics, the fundamental nature of the soul.” (Reformist preacher
Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
“Are non-Christian races entitled to equality in a
Christian society? (...) I declare it before the country and the world, that
those who are not based on Christian religious foundations do not, according to
holy laws, and laws of morals deserve equality in a Christian society. This is
what my patriotic concern tells me, and this is what a Christian society's
Christian principles demand everywhere in the world.” (Reformist pastor Emil
Kovács, 1920)
“In Hungary, in a Christian society, in this Christian
state, let them (viz.
Christians of Jewish extraction) be equal
Christian citizens, and by their marriages remain in this line of life.” (Evangelical Bishop
Béla Kapi, 1941)
3. Restrictions through legislation
Restricting Jews is a vital national
issue, which justifies the enactment of the laws. Restrictive laws are
compatible with Christian ideology, that is, with Christian historical
tradition. Safeguarding Christian rule is the paramount goal, to which
everything must be subjected.
“The Jewish problem is not an issue of religion, or race,
but of social politics. Either our race survives, or theirs. We shall not harm
them, because we are a civilised people. We are hounded from every side, but we
are not prepared to act illegally, we have enough legal means.” (Chaplain János Huber,
1920)
“...let us destroy, let us break the power of plutochracy.
(...) I believe the Jewish problem to be the most urgent social, political and
economic issue.” (Chaplain
Miklós Grieger, 1920)
“In my eyes the Jewish problem is a racial issue, or if
you like, an issue of nationality, but most of all, an issue of economics. The
solution of the Jewish problem: if in the cultural and economic plane they are
restricted to the areas they are entitled to by their proportion within
Hungarian society. This can be achieve by properly addressing the nation. (...)
I have reached the issue of numerus clausus. We must implement the numerus
clausus.”
(Minister for Education and Religion, theologist István Haller, 16th
February, 1920.)
“The entire Christian Hungarian society demands forcefully
and urgently legislation to solve the Jewish problem.” (Reformist preacher
Balázs Szabó, 1920)
“The institutionalised, urgent solution of Hungary's
Jewish problem is the most serious of our insolved problems. Ninety per cent of
the National Assembly will work with full patriotism, full national enthusiasm,
with all the weight of its Christian religious morals on solving the Jewish
problem (...) We must defend ourselves against the Jewish invasion, we must
work hard, with determination, fuelled by the love of this country inherited
from our forefathers, by Christian religious virtue, zeal and with national
cooperation. But the Jewish problem must be solved not through violence, but
with laws, with cultural means. Our measures to protect our race cannot be
delayed any longer,” (Roman
Catholic teacher László Budavári, 1920)
“Budavári's 10 points: Initiative for an urgent,
institutionalised solution of the Jewish problem
1. In Hungary Jew cannot buy or rent land. The land thus
freed is to be urgently parcelled and distributed at a reasonable price among
Hungarian smallholders, workers of the land, officials, public officers. I
always prefer to see land held by a Christian priest or Christian magnate,
because I know that from the point of view of the nation and religious virtue
are fully reliable.
2. Jews may not retain more than one house in their
ownership.
3. Jews will receive no residency permits in Hungary, and
cannot earn citizenship.
4. Numerus clausus is to be strictly enforced at all of
Hungary's schools, offices, public institutions, factories, plants, banks.
There may be no Jewish schools in the future. Jews may not be admitted to
teacher training schools.
5. State project constructions, deliveries may only be
handled by Christian businesses. Jew cannot employ Christian servants for their
own use.
6. Jews and free masons may not be editors, editors in
chief, directors, senior journalists of newspapers, magazines. Every journalist
must take an oath that they protect Christian morals. No Hebrew-language
newspaper or pamphlet may be published or distributed in Hungary.
7. State licences may only be applied for by Christian
salesmen.
8. In Hungary no Jew or free mason may be minister,
undersecretary, the head of a state office, or an employee of a foreign
representative office of Hungary, furthermore they may not be Judges, notaries,
officers, security force employees, town, community or county officers. Jews
may not exercise political rights in Hungary.
9. Every international non-Christian political or social
organisation and party, and every masonic organisation must be immediatley
dissolved, and no licences will be issued in the future for the creation of
such organisations and parties.
10. All those, who are guilty of bringing Communism to
Hungary, and thereby ruining our country, or have agitated in any way in the
interest of Bolshevism, or have jeered at, threatened or harmed any Hungarian
citizen for their national and Christian feelings must be immediately punished
by death by Court Marshall upon apprehension.” (Roman Catholic teacher
László Budavári, 1920)
“Numerus clausus is not anti-Semitism, but is contemplated
in favour of the Hungarian racial genius. Jews are overrepresented, they
repress us, this is not anti-Semitism, but racial self-defence. We are in the
middle of a process, which must be termed dechristianisation.” (Roman Catholic Bishop
Ottokár Prohászka, 1920)
“The admission of races must be determined on the basis of
proportions. This is not a question, it is the question of the existence of the
Christian Hungarian intelligentsia.” (Reformist preacher Balázs Szabó, 1920)
“The Bill is a Bill (numerus clausus Act) to protect the nation.” (Reformist preacher Dezső Szűcs, 1920)
“This restriction on the freedom of beliefs must be
enacted in the interest of our very national existence.... There has been a
spiritual dumbing down at the cost of the Christian Hungary, which we must now
make up for, even at the cost of restricting civil freedoms. (...) we must
ensure its predominance at all cost, if in no other way, than, if a minority
congregation, a minority race tries to come before me, to force itself before
me, by setting restrictions. This I can do by restricting the freedom of
beliefs.” (Gyula
Zákány, army preacher, religious teacher, 1920)
“The proposal only restricts individual freedoms where
they harm the community. Every individual freedom of superceded by the nation's
will to live. This law was dictated by Trianon. The state has the obligation to
oversee who become people of leading position in the country. The Bill, which
excludes Jews, is just.” (Minister of Education and Religion, theologist István
Haller, 13th March, 1928.)
“The Jewish problem has a hundred-year old open history,
but its latent history is much longer. Finally, a very simple, topical
political solution will decide: which one is better, if the Parliament does not
accept the Bill, (1938:
XV. tc.), of if Parliament accepts the
Bill. It is my conviction that the approval of this Bill would be in the
interest of not only the country, its peace, calm and safety, but also the very
people who – I admit rightly – most vocipherously protest its approval. (...)
Parliament will not be passing sentence on a religion, it has not set out to
enact a law motivated by its dislike of a religion.” (Reformist Bishop László
Ravasz, 1938)
“This Bill (1939:
IV. tc.) has been prepared so as to save
the Hungarian Christian society. It was not hatred that propelled or launched
this proposal, but a love of the Christian Hungarian society. (...) The Bill is
complicated with the issues of Christianity and legality. This Bill has been
formed from a point of view, which has its roots deep in fundamental Christian
truths. (...) This party was born in protest against the law allowing civilian
marriage. Marriage, according to the Catholic view of the world, was
established by the Church. This was broken by the law of civilian marriages.” (Chaplain Lajos
Makray, 1939)
“The unconditional solution of the Jewish problem is by
legislation, in order to prevent people's justice.” (Dénes Güttler, Vicar,
Chaplain, 1939)
“...these usurer Jews, (...) and because of these we are
forced to impose restrictions on the cultured, honourable Jews.” (Chief caretaker of
Reformist church district Jenő Balogh, 1939)
“If a group, or a contiguous mass or layer of people
acquire such a level of power or influence that they can autarchically pass on
their power, they cannot be dealt with, only through executive means. The legal
executive means is the legislation, which is the single possibility in the face
of the other executive means, violence. (...) If you have Jews, you will have a
Jewish problem, the two go together and the one has never happened without the
other in the history of the world, there has been no Jew without a problem, and
there has been no Jewish problem without Jews.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1939)
“The justification of the Bill, its entire spirit proves
that it serves to protect the Hungarian race, it hopes to be a law to protect
the race, and now I understand race protection in its very best sense. The Bill
(1941. XV. tc.) seeks to protect the race through the
protection of marriage. The Bill is born of the fundamental thought that Jewry
is a dominant racial concept, whilst often it is quite uncertain. Its second
tenet is that it is always evident, consistent and manifests itself in
identical spiritual and moral qualities. Its third tenet is that this spiritual
and moral quality is at all times destructive for non-Jews. These are hurried
conclusions, misleading generalisations, and above all these are classic
examples of blunt materialism. But I cannot approve the Bill from a general
Christian point of view either, because it seeks to ban forever Christians of
Jewish extraction, and their descendants from marrying non-Jewish people. I
asked the Honourable Minister of Justice to ensure in this Bill, as it had been
done in Germany, that a second Christian generation calculated from four or
three grandparents should be allowed to marry persons of non-Jewish extraction
in special and especially strictly considered cases.” (Reformist Bishop
László Ravasz, 1941)
The categories of content analysis
demonstrate the system of beliefs of the Church delegates as shown in the texts
analysed, and show that in this view of the world (Weltanschauung) there
existed a prototypical view, based on the opposition of Jews and Christians.
The connections and strutcure of categorial parameters are shown in a diagram
(diagram 1.). According to this Jews are in opposition with the Christian
society, their morals, characteristics are inferior to those of Christians.
Because of their bad nature, they are aliens within the nation, which nation is
equal with the glorious Christian nation. They attack Christian society
prompted by their alienness and evilness, thus the Christian society is forced
to protect istelf, and its rule must be protected by the means of legislation.
Jews may enter the Christian society through assimilation, and thus receive
equal rights, but seditious assimilation, false transformation necessitates
urgent legislation.
1. ábra
THEM US
Jews: bad morals Christian nation
aliens
hostile glorious, sacred
by legislation power
protected
false
assimilation assimilation
Interrelation of categories
Analysis of Parliamentary
discourse, the discourse of US and THEM
The categorial content analysis of
Parliamentary speeches shows that the political discourse under examination had
as its main element the differentiating discourse of us and them.
The discourse analysis-based analysis of the macrostructure of the speeches
consists of the analysis of verbal representation and system of aguments.
Lexical and grammatical analysis of prejudiced speeches
The verbal representation of the
external group (THEM), the experience-value of the words
Open and hidden references to Jews in Parliamentary texts
Open reference and number of utterances:
1 Jewry (37), Jew (15), Jews (21)
1 Jewish people (5), layer of people, national
element, Jewish nation, country of Jews, Jewish state, diaspora nation (2)
1 Israelite (2), Israelites (4), Israelite
people (2), brothers in faith, our Israelites and Jewish citizens refer to
converts, the faith of the Jews
Qualified terms:
1 Jewish power (2), Jewish politics, Jewish
intellectuals, Jewish capital, usurer Jews (2), unassimilated Jew, Jews and
masons (2), ghetto-Jews
1 Jewish morals, Jewish character, Jewish
soul, Jewish spirit (2), honourable Jew (convert)
1 Jewish fate, Jewish complex
1 Jewish invasion, Jewish press, Jewish
schools, Jewish terror
1 Jewish race (3), triumphant race, with
strong racialness
1 side-burn wearers, long-bearded ones,
caftaned apparition
Hidden references
(the hiddenness is
soon dissolved in the text, and often open references to Jews appear
concurrently)
1 cosmopolitan, false liberalism (2),
capitalism, liberalism (5), Galilei club (2), plutocracy, free mason, communist
1 faithless nation, Mammon,
1 snake, internal worm, parasitic race,
destructive moth, eternal boil
Reference to Jews show the
mechanisms of prejudiced thought. The references almost without exception have
a negative meaning, they are generalisations, judgements. We cannot find any
sociological specifications as to who are being talked about, there is no
categorisation by age, gender, profession or dwelling. The group of Jews is
treated as a united whole, with its members characterised by every negative
feature attributed to the whole group.